Were Women Anxious in the Post-War Period?
Betty Friedan mystified the diverse experiences of women.
The feminist writer who famously described post-World War II America as an anxious time for American women was Betty Friedan.
Betty Friedan (1921–2006) was an American feminist writer, activist, and organizer who played a crucial role in the women's movement in the United States. Her most famous work, "The Feminine Mystique," published in 1963, is often credited with sparking the second wave of American feminism in the 20th century.
In "The Feminine Mystique," Friedan explored what she called "the problem that has no name" - the widespread unhappiness of American women in the 1950s and early 1960s. She argued that women were being pushed into narrow roles as housewives and mothers, which left many feeling unfulfilled and anxious despite the relative prosperity of the post-war era.
Friedan's book challenged the prevailing notion that women should find complete fulfillment through their roles as wives and mothers. She argued that the emphasis on domesticity and the idealization of the housewife role were causing a crisis of identity and purpose among many middle-class American women.
While "The Feminine Mystique" was undoubtedly influential, it has faced significant criticism over the years. Here's an overview of some key criticisms, historians who have challenged her work, and important correctives:
Criticisms of Friedan's work:
1. Limited scope: Friedan's analysis primarily focused on middle-class, educated white women, largely ignoring the experiences of working-class women.
2. Oversimplification: Critics argue that Friedan presented a monolithic view of women's experiences, overlooking diversity in women's lives and choices.
3. Neglect of economic factors: Some argue that Friedan underemphasized economic necessities that drove women's choices and experiences.
4. Idealization of work: Critics suggest Friedan overly romanticized paid work as the primary path to fulfillment for women.
Historians who have challenged Friedan's narrative:
1. Joanne Meyerowitz: In her edited volume "Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945–1960," Meyerowitz and other contributors argue that women's experiences in the 1950s were far more diverse and complex than Friedan proposed.
2. Stephanie Coontz: In "The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap," Coontz critiques the notion of the 1950s as a "golden age" for families and challenges Friedan's depiction of widespread female discontent.
3. Daniel Horowitz: In "Betty Friedan and the Making of The Feminine Mystique," Horowitz reveals Friedan's earlier involvement with radical politics and labor journalism, complicating the image she presented of herself as a suburban housewife.
4. Jessica Weiss: In "To Have and to Hold: Marriage, the Baby Boom, and Social Change," Weiss presents a more nuanced view of women's lives in the postwar era, highlighting both continuity and change.
An important corrective to Friedan's work:
A significant corrective to Friedan's narrative is the recognition of the diverse experiences of women in post-war America, particularly those of working-class women. For many of these women, paid work outside the home was already a necessity and a reality, not a distant aspiration.
Historians like Jacqueline Jones in "Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present" have highlighted how African American women's experiences differed drastically from the white, middle-class suburban ideal Friedan critiqued. Many Black women were already in the workforce, facing both gender and racial discrimination. Friedan was rarely criticized for her racism.
Similarly, the experiences of working-class women of all races often involved juggling work and family responsibilities out of economic necessity rather than feeling trapped in domestic roles. In these environments, the experience of women—black and white,—had much in common.
Recognizing these diverse experiences provides a more comprehensive and accurate picture of women's lives in post-war America, acknowledging both the real constraints many women faced and the various ways they navigated and challenged societal expectations.
While Friedan's work was groundbreaking in many ways, these critiques and correctives help us understand the complexity of women's experiences in this period.
While it's important to approach this topic carefully and avoid overgeneralizing, there were indeed positive experiences for many American women in the post-World War II period that are sometimes overlooked in critiques of the era. Here's an overview of some positive aspects, with particular attention to women from traditional, religious homes:
1. Stability and economic growth: The post-war period saw significant economic prosperity for many Americans. This allowed some women to focus on family life without financial stress, which was fulfilling for those who valued this role.
2. Community involvement: Many women found fulfillment through active participation in their communities, churches, synagogues, and local organizations. This allowed them to exercise leadership skills and make meaningful contributions outside the home.
3. Educational opportunities: While often not career-focused, many women pursued higher education during this period, enriching their intellectual lives.
4. Motherhood as a vocation: For women who viewed motherhood as a calling, especially in religious contexts, the cultural emphasis on family allowed them to fully embrace this role without societal pressure to also pursue a career.
5. Strong social networks: Close-knit neighborhoods and religious communities often provided strong support systems for women, fostering a sense of belonging and purpose.
6. Volunteer work: Many women found satisfaction in volunteer activities, allowing them to contribute to causes they cared about while maintaining flexibility for family responsibilities.
7. Crafts and homemaking skills: Some women took pride in developing domestic skills, viewing homemaking as an art form and a way to express creativity.
8. Religious fulfillment: For women from traditional religious backgrounds, adherence to faith-based gender roles is frequently aligned with their personal beliefs, providing a sense of spiritual purpose and contentment.
9. Marital partnerships: While gender roles were often rigid, many couples developed strong, cooperative partnerships within the framework of traditional marriage.
10. Child-centered fulfillment: For women who highly valued motherhood, the child-centered culture of the time aligned with their personal priorities.
11. Sense of moral purpose: Some women, particularly in religious communities, felt they were upholding important moral and social values by focusing on home and family.
12. Freedom from certain pressures: The lack of expectation to "have it all" (career, family, etc.) meant some women felt less conflicted or overwhelmed compared to later generations.
Women from lower socioeconomic backgrounds have achieved the American dream since they took advantage of the opportunities afforded them.
The narrative of women's experiences in the post-World War II era is more complex than sometimes portrayed. Despite the constraints of the time, many women did achieve significant success in various fields. Here's an overview of some actual achievements and successes of women in this period:
1. Labor force participation:
- Women's participation in the labor force steadily increased. By 1960, about 40% of women aged 25–54 were in the labor force, up from 35% in 1950.
- Many women continued working in industries they entered during the war.
2. Education:
- Women's college enrollment rose significantly. By 1950, women made up 30% of college students, increasing to 37.9% by 1960.
- Women earned 24% of all bachelor's degrees in 1950, rising to 35% by 1960.
3. Professional advancements:
- Medicine: The percentage of women doctors increased from 4.5% in 1950 to 6.8% by 1960.
- Law: Women made up 3.5% of lawyers in 1960, a small but growing presence.
- Science: Notable figures like Grace Hopper made significant contributions to computer science.
4. Business and entrepreneurship:
- Many women started successful small businesses, particularly in retail and services.
- Brownie Wise revolutionized direct marketing with Tupperware home parties.
5. Politics and activism:
- Margaret Chase Smith became the first woman to serve in both houses of Congress.
- Women like Rosa Parks and Fannie Lou Hamer were crucial in the Civil Rights Movement.
6. Arts and entertainment:
- Women achieved significant success in literature (e.g., Harper Lee, Flannery O'Connor).
- In Hollywood, figures like Lucille Ball not only starred in but also produced successful shows.
7. Journalism:
- Women like Dorothy Thompson and Margaret Bourke-White were renowned journalists and war correspondents.
8. Sports:
- Babe Didrikson Zaharias dominated multiple sports and co-founded the LPGA.
9. Financial independence:
- The percentage of women with independent incomes increased.
- By 1960, about 40% of married women in middle-class families contributed to household income.
10. Patents and inventions:
- Women inventors, though still a minority, increased their patent filings during this period.
11. Military:
- The Women's Armed Services Integration Act of 1948 allowed women to serve as permanent members of the military.
The reality of women's experiences in the post-war period was multifaceted. While many women did find fulfillment in domestic roles, as Friedan critiqued, others were breaking barriers and achieving significant professional and financial success. This complexity suggests that a more nuanced understanding of this period is necessary, acknowledging both the constraints women faced and the real achievements many were able to accomplish. It's also indispensable to recognize that for some women, particularly those whose personal values aligned with the prevailing cultural norms, this period offered genuine fulfillment and happiness. The key is to understand the diversity of women's experiences rather than assuming a single narrative applies to all.